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Which Two 32-bit Registers Are Known As Extended Index Registers

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Instruction prepare compages

MIPS
Designer MIPS Technologies, Imagination Technologies
Bits 64-flake (32 → 64)
Introduced 1985; 37 years agone  (1985)
Version MIPS32/64 Release six (2014)
Blueprint RISC
Blazon Register-Register
Encoding Fixed
Branching Compare and branch
Endianness Bi
Page size 4 KB
Extensions MDMX, MIPS-3D
Open Partly. The R12000 processor has been on the market for more than 20 years and so cannot exist subject to patent claims. Therefore, the R12000 and older processors are fully open.
Registers
General purpose 32
Floating point 32

MIPS (Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipelined Stages)[1] is a family of reduced didactics gear up computer (RISC) instruction set up architectures (ISA)[2] : A-1 [3] : 19 developed by MIPS Computer Systems, now MIPS Technologies, based in the United States.

In that location are multiple versions of MIPS: including MIPS I, Two, III, 4, and V; as well every bit five releases of MIPS32/64 (for 32- and 64-bit implementations, respectively). The early MIPS architectures were 32-bit; 64-bit versions were developed after. As of Apr 2017, the electric current version of MIPS is MIPS32/64 Release 6.[four] [5] MIPS32/64 primarily differs from MIPS I–V by defining the privileged kernel mode Arrangement Control Coprocessor in addition to the user fashion architecture.

The MIPS architecture has several optional extensions. MIPS-3D which is a elementary ready of floating-point SIMD instructions dedicated to mutual 3D tasks,[6] MDMX (MaDMaX) which is a more extensive integer SIMD education set up using the 64-bit floating-point registers, MIPS16e which adds pinch to the instruction stream to make programs have upwardly less room,[7] and MIPS MT, which adds multithreading capability.[8]

Reckoner architecture courses in universities and technical schools often study the MIPS architecture.[9] The architecture greatly influenced later RISC architectures such as Blastoff. In March 2021, MIPS announced that the development of the MIPS architecture had ended as the company is making the transition to RISC-Five.[10]

History [edit]

The start version of the MIPS architecture was designed by MIPS Figurer Systems for its R2000 microprocessor, the first MIPS implementation. Both MIPS and the R2000 were introduced together in 1985.[ citation needed ] When MIPS 2 was introduced, MIPS was renamed MIPS I to distinguish it from the new version.[iii] : 32

MIPS Computer Systems' R6000 microprocessor (1989) was the starting time MIPS Two implementation.[iii] : 8 Designed for servers, the R6000 was fabricated and sold by Bipolar Integrated Technology, but was a commercial failure. During the mid-1990s, many new 32-bit MIPS processors for embedded systems were MIPS II implementations considering the introduction of the 64-bit MIPS III compages in 1991 left MIPS II as the newest 32-bit MIPS architecture until MIPS32 was introduced in 1999.[3] : 19

MIPS Computer Systems' R4000 microprocessor (1991) was the first MIPS Iii implementation. It was designed for use in personal, workstation, and server computers. MIPS Figurer Systems aggressively promoted the MIPS architecture and R4000, establishing the Advanced Computing Surroundings (ACE) consortium to advance its Advanced RISC Computing (ARC) standard, which aimed to establish MIPS as the ascendant personal computing platform. ARC found picayune success in personal computers, but the R4000 (and the R4400 derivative) were widely used in workstation and server computers, especially past its largest user, Silicon Graphics. Other uses of the R4000 included high-cease embedded systems and supercomputers. MIPS III was eventually implemented by a number of embedded microprocessors. Quantum Effect Design'south R4600 (1993) and its derivatives was widely used in high-stop embedded systems and depression-terminate workstations and servers. MIPS Technologies' R4200 (1994), was designed for embedded systems, laptop, and personal computers. A derivative, the R4300i, fabricated by NEC Electronics, was used in the Nintendo 64 game panel. The Nintendo 64, along with the PlayStation, were among the highest volume users of MIPS architecture processors in the mid-1990s.

The first MIPS Four implementation was the MIPS Technologies R8000 microprocessor chipset (1994). The design of the R8000 began at Silicon Graphics, Inc. and it was only used in loftier-finish workstations and servers for scientific and technical applications where high performance on large floating-indicate workloads was important. Later implementations were the MIPS Technologies R10000 (1996) and the Quantum Effect Devices R5000 (1996) and RM7000 (1998). The R10000, made and sold by NEC Electronics and Toshiba, and its derivatives were used by NEC, Pyramid Engineering science, Silicon Graphics, and Tandem Computers (amongst others) in workstations, servers, and supercomputers. The R5000 and R7000 establish use in high-stop embedded systems, personal computers, and low-stop workstations and servers. A derivative of the R5000 from Toshiba, the R5900, was used in Sony Calculator Amusement's Emotion Engine, which powered its PlayStation 2 game console.

Announced on October 21, 1996, at the Microprocessor Forum 1996 alongside the MIPS Digital Media Extensions (MDMX) extension, MIPS V was designed to improve the performance of 3D graphics transformations.[11] In the mid-1990s, a major utilize of non-embedded MIPS microprocessors were graphics workstations from Silicon Graphics. MIPS V was completed by the integer-but MDMX extension to provide a complete organization for improving the performance of 3D graphics applications.[12] MIPS V implementations were never introduced. On May 12, 1997, Silicon Graphics announced the H1 ("Animate being") and H2 ("Capitan") microprocessors. The one-time was to have been the first MIPS V implementation, and was due to be introduced in the start one-half of 1999.[13] The H1 and H2 projects were later combined and somewhen canceled in 1998. While at that place have not been any MIPS V implementations, MIPS64 Release 1 (1999) was based on MIPS V and retains all of its features equally an optional Coprocessor 1 (FPU) characteristic called Paired-Single.

When MIPS Technologies was spun-out of Silicon Graphics in 1998, it refocused on the embedded market. Through MIPS 5, each successive version was a strict superset of the previous version, but this property was establish to be a problem,[ citation needed ] and the architecture definition was changed to define a 32-bit and a 64-flake architecture: MIPS32 and MIPS64. Both were introduced in 1999.[14] MIPS32 is based on MIPS II with some additional features from MIPS Three, MIPS IV, and MIPS Five; MIPS64 is based on MIPS Five.[14] NEC, Toshiba and SiByte (afterwards caused past Broadcom) each obtained licenses for MIPS64 as soon as it was appear. Philips, LSI Logic, IDT, Raza Microsystem electronics, Inc., Cavium, Loongson Engineering and Ingenic Semiconductor have since joined them. MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 5 was announced on December 6, 2012.[15] Release four was skipped because the number four is perceived every bit unlucky in many Asian cultures.[16]

In December 2018, Wave Calculating, the new owner of the MIPS compages, announced that MIPS ISA would be open-sourced in a program dubbed the MIPS Open initiative.[17] The program was intended to open upwardly access to the most recent versions of both the 32-bit and 64-bit designs making them available without whatever licensing or royalty fees equally well as granting participants licenses to existing MIPS patents.[18] [19] [20]

In March 2019, 1 version of the architecture was made available under a royalty-free license,[21] merely afterwards that year the program was shut downward again.[22]

In March 2021, Wave Computing announced that the evolution of the MIPS architecture has ceased. The visitor has joined the RISC-V foundation and future processor designs will be based on the RISC-V architecture.[23] [24] In spite of this, some licensees such as Longsoon continue with new extension of MIPS-compatible ISAs on their ain.[25]

Pattern [edit]

MIPS is a modular compages supporting up to four coprocessors (CP0/1/two/iii). In MIPS terminology, CP0 is the System Command Coprocessor (an essential office of the processor that is implementation-defined in MIPS I–V), CP1 is an optional floating-signal unit of measurement (FPU) and CP2/iii are optional implementation-defined coprocessors (MIPS 3 removed CP3 and reused its opcodes for other purposes). For example, in the PlayStation video game console, CP2 is the Geometry Transformation Engine (GTE), which accelerates the processing of geometry in 3D computer graphics.

Versions [edit]

MIPS I [edit]

MIPS is a load/store architecture (as well known as a register-register architecture); except for the load/store instructions used to admission retentiveness, all instructions operate on the registers.

Registers [edit]

MIPS I has thirty-ii 32-scrap general-purpose registers (GPR). Register $0 is hardwired to aught and writes to information technology are discarded. Annals $31 is the link register. For integer multiplication and division instructions, which run asynchronously from other instructions, a pair of 32-bit registers, HI and LO, are provided. There is a small set of instructions for copying data between the full general-purpose registers and the How-do-you-do/LO registers.

The programme counter has 32 $.25. The ii low-club $.25 e'er incorporate zippo since MIPS I instructions are 32 bits long and are aligned to their natural give-and-take boundaries.

Instruction formats [edit]

Instructions are divided into three types: R (register), I (firsthand), and J (jump). Every instruction starts with a six-bit opcode. In addition to the opcode, R-type instructions specify three registers, a shift amount field, and a part field; I-blazon instructions specify 2 registers and a 16-bit immediate value; J-type instructions follow the opcode with a 26-scrap jump target.[2] : A-174

The following are the 3 formats used for the cadre didactics set:

Type -31-                                 format (bits)                                 -0-
R opcode (6) rs (5) rt (5) rd (5) shamt (5) funct (6)
I opcode (6) rs (five) rt (v) immediate (sixteen)
J opcode (6) address (26)

CPU instructions [edit]

MIPS I has instructions that load and shop viii-bit bytes, 16-bit halfwords, and 32-bit words. Merely one addressing manner is supported: base + displacement. Since MIPS I is a 32-bit architecture, loading quantities fewer than 32 bits requires the datum to be either sign-extended or nothing-extended to 32 bits. The load instructions suffixed by "unsigned" perform zippo extension; otherwise sign extension is performed. Load instructions source the base of operations from the contents of a GPR (rs) and write the result to some other GPR (rt). Store instructions source the base from the contents of a GPR (rs) and the store data from some other GPR (rt). All load and shop instructions compute the memory address by summing the base of operations with the sign-extended 16-bit immediate. MIPS I requires all retentiveness accesses to be aligned to their natural word boundaries, otherwise an exception is signaled. To support efficient unaligned memory accesses, there are load/shop give-and-take instructions suffixed past "left" or "right". All load instructions are followed past a load delay slot. The education in the load delay slot cannot use the data loaded by the load instruction. The load delay slot can exist filled with an instruction that is not dependent on the load; a nop is substituted if such an instruction cannot be plant.

MIPS I has instructions to perform addition and subtraction. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs (rs and rt), and write the result to a third GPR (rd). Alternatively, addition can source 1 of the operands from a sixteen-scrap firsthand (which is sign-extended to 32 bits). The instructions for add-on and subtraction have two variants: by default, an exception is signaled if the result overflows; instructions with the "unsigned" suffix practice non signal an exception. The overflow check interprets the outcome as a 32-chip two'south complement integer. MIPS I has instructions to perform bitwise logical AND, OR, XOR, and NOR. These instructions source their operands from ii GPRs and write the result to a third GPR. The AND, OR, and XOR instructions can alternatively source one of the operands from a 16-bit immediate (which is zero-extended to 32 $.25). The Set on relation instructions write ane or nothing to the destination register if the specified relation is true or false. These instructions source their operands from ii GPRs or 1 GPR and a xvi-bit immediate (which is sign-extended to 32 bits), and write the upshot to a tertiary GPR. By default, the operands are interpreted as signed integers. The variants of these instructions that are suffixed with "unsigned" interpret the operands as unsigned integers (even those that source an operand from the sign-extended 16-bit immediate).

The Load Immediate Upper instruction copies the 16-bit immediate into the high-club sixteen bits of a GPR. Information technology is used in conjunction with the Or Firsthand instruction to load a 32-fleck firsthand into a annals.

MIPS I has instructions to perform left and correct logical shifts and correct arithmetic shifts. The operand is obtained from a GPR (rt), and the result is written to another GPR (rd). The shift distance is obtained from either a GPR (rs) or a 5-flake "shift amount" (the "sa" field).

MIPS I has instructions for signed and unsigned integer multiplication and sectionalization. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs and write their results to a pair of 32-bit registers chosen HI and LO, since they may execute separately from (and concurrently with) the other CPU instructions. For multiplication, the high- and depression-order halves of the 64-bit production is written to HI and LO (respectively). For division, the quotient is written to LO and the remainder to Hullo. To access the results, a pair of instructions (Move from HI and Move from LO) is provided to copy the contents of HI or LO to a GPR. These instructions are interlocked: reads of HI and LO do non proceed past an unfinished arithmetic teaching that will write to HI and LO. Another pair of instructions (Move to HI or Motility to LO) copies the contents of a GPR to HI and LO. These instructions are used to restore Howdy and LO to their original state after exception treatment. Instructions that read Hello or LO must be separated by two instructions that do not write to Howdy or LO.

All MIPS I command flow instructions are followed past a branch delay slot. Unless the branch delay slot is filled by an teaching performing useful piece of work, an nop is substituted. MIPS I branch instructions compare the contents of a GPR (rs) confronting zero or another GPR (rt) every bit signed integers and branch if the specified condition is true. Control is transferred to the address computed by shifting the 16-bit first left by two bits, sign-extending the 18-bit result, and calculation the 32-scrap sign-extended upshot to the sum of the plan counter (education address) and 810. Jumps have 2 versions: accented and register-indirect. Absolute jumps ("Bound" and "Jump and Link") compute the address control is transferred to by shifting the 26-bit instr_index left by two bits and concatenating the 28-bit issue with the four high-order bits of the accost of the instruction in the branch filibuster slot. Register-indirect jumps transfer control to the instruction at the address sourced from a GPR (rs). The accost sourced from the GPR must be word-aligned, else an exception is signaled later on the instruction in the branch delay slot is executed. Branch and spring instructions that link (except for "Jump and Link Register") save the return accost to GPR 31. The "Jump and Link Register" education permits the return address to exist saved to any writable GPR.

MIPS I has two instructions for software to signal an exception: Organisation Call and Breakpoint. System Telephone call is used by user fashion software to brand kernel calls; and Breakpoint is used to transfer control to a debugger via the kernel's exception handler. Both instructions have a twenty-bit Code field that can incorporate operating environment-specific information for the exception handler.

MIPS has 32 floating-point registers. Ii registers are paired for double precision numbers. Odd numbered registers cannot exist used for arithmetic or branching, just as function of a double precision register pair, resulting in 16 usable registers for about instructions (moves/copies and loads/stores were not affected).

Single precision is denoted by the .southward suffix, while double precision is denoted by the .d suffix.

MIPS Two [edit]

MIPS II removed the load delay slot[iii] : 41 and added several sets of instructions. For shared-retentivity multiprocessing, the Synchronize Shared Retentivity, Load Linked Give-and-take, and Shop Conditional Give-and-take instructions were added. A set of Trap-on-Condition instructions were added. These instructions caused an exception if the evaluated status is true. All existing branch instructions were given branch-likely versions that executed the instruction in the branch filibuster slot only if the branch is taken.[3] : 40 These instructions improve functioning in certain cases by allowing useful instructions to make full the branch delay slot.[3] : 212 Doubleword load and store instructions for COP1–iii were added. Consistent with other memory access instructions, these loads and stores required the doubleword to be naturally aligned.

The pedagogy set up for the floating point coprocessor likewise had several instructions added to it. An IEEE 754-compliant floating-point foursquare root teaching was added. Information technology supported both single- and double-precision operands. A gear up of instructions that converted single- and double-precision floating-point numbers to 32-bit words were added. These complemented the existing conversion instructions past allowing the IEEE rounding mode to be specified by the instruction instead of the Floating Point Control and Condition Register.

MIPS III [edit]

MIPS Three is a backwards-uniform extension of MIPS II that added support for 64-scrap memory addressing and integer operations. The 64-bit data type is called a doubleword, and MIPS III extended the full general-purpose registers, How-do-you-do/LO registers, and programme counter to 64 $.25 to support it. New instructions were added to load and store doublewords, to perform integer addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and shift operations on them, and to move doubleword between the GPRs and HI/LO registers. Existing instructions originally divers to operate on 32-fleck words were redefined, where necessary, to sign-extend the 32-bit results to permit words and doublewords to be treated identically by most instructions. Among those instructions redefined was Load Give-and-take. In MIPS Three it sign-extends words to 64 $.25. To complement Load Word, a version that zilch-extends was added.

The R instruction format's inability to specify the full shift distance for 64-flake shifts (its 5-bit shift amount field is too narrow to specify the shift distance for doublewords) required MIPS Iii to provide three 64-bit versions of each MIPS I shift instruction. The first version is a 64-bit version of the original shift instructions, used to specify abiding shift distances of 0–31 bits. The second version is similar to the first, but adds 3210 the shift corporeality field's value then that constant shift distances of 32–64 $.25 can exist specified. The third version obtains the shift distance from the six low-order bits of a GPR.

MIPS Iii added a supervisor privilege level in between the existing kernel and user privilege levels. This feature but afflicted the implementation-divers System Control Processor (Coprocessor 0).

MIPS Three removed the Coprocessor 3 (CP3) support instructions, and reused its opcodes for the new doubleword instructions. The remaining coprocessors gained instructions to motion doublewords betwixt coprocessor registers and the GPRs. The floating general registers (FGRs) were extended to 64 bits and the requirement for instructions to use even-numbered register just was removed. This is incompatible with before versions of the architecture; a chip in the floating-point command/status register is used to operate the MIPS Iii floating-point unit (FPU) in a MIPS I- and II-compatible way. The floating-point control registers were not extended for compatibility. The just new floating-point instructions added were those to copy doublewords betwixt the CPU and FPU convert single- and double-precision floating-point numbers into doubleword integers and vice versa.

MIPS Iv [edit]

MIPS IV is the fourth version of the compages. It is a superset of MIPS III and is compatible with all existing versions of MIPS. MIPS IV was designed to mainly ameliorate floating-point (FP) performance. To amend access to operands, an indexed addressing style (base of operations + index, both sourced from GPRs) for FP loads and stores was added, equally were prefetch instructions for performing memory prefetching and specifying cache hints (these supported both the base of operations + outset and base + index addressing modes).

MIPS IV added several features to better pedagogy-level parallelism. To convalesce the bottleneck caused by a single condition scrap, seven condition code bits were added to the floating-betoken control and status register, bringing the total to eight. FP comparison and branch instructions were redefined so they could specify which condition bit was written or read (respectively); and the filibuster slot in between an FP branch that read the condition scrap written to by a prior FP comparison was removed. Back up for partial predication was added in the form of conditional motion instructions for both GPRs and FPRs; and an implementation could cull between having precise or imprecise exceptions for IEEE 754 traps.

MIPS Iv added several new FP arithmetics instructions for both unmarried- and double-precision FPNs: fused-multiply add or subtract, reciprocal, and reciprocal square-root. The FP fused-multiply add or subtract instructions perform either 1 or 2 roundings (information technology is implementation-defined), to exceed or encounter IEEE 754 accuracy requirements (respectively). The FP reciprocal and reciprocal square-root instructions do not comply with IEEE 754 accuracy requirements, and produce results that differ from the required accuracy past ane or two units of last place (information technology is implementation defined). These instructions serve applications where instruction latency is more of import than accurateness.

MIPS V [edit]

MIPS 5 added a new data type, the Paired Single (PS), which consisted of two single-precision (32-bit) floating-point numbers stored in the existing 64-bit floating-point registers. Variants of existing floating-point instructions for arithmetics, compare and conditional move were added to operate on this data type in a SIMD style. New instructions were added for loading, rearranging and converting PS data.[iii] : 426–429 It was the first instruction gear up to exploit floating-bespeak SIMD with existing resources.[12]

MIPS32/MIPS64 [edit]

The first release of MIPS32, based on MIPS II, added conditional moves, prefetch instructions, and other features from the R4000 and R5000 families of 64-bit processors.[14] The starting time release of MIPS64 adds a MIPS32 manner to run 32-fleck code.[xiv] The MUL and MADD (multiply-add) instructions, previously available in some implementations, were added to the MIPS32 and MIPS64 specifications, as were enshroud command instructions.[14]

MIPS32/MIPS64 Release half-dozen in 2014 added the following:[26]

  • a new family of branches with no delay slot:
    • unconditional branches (BC) and branch-and-link (BALC) with a 26-bit offset,
    • conditional branch on zero/non-goose egg with a 21-bit offset,
    • total set of signed and unsigned conditional branches compare betwixt 2 registers (e.g. BGTUC) or a register against zero (e.g. BGTZC),
    • full ready of branch-and-link which compare a register against zero (e.g. BGTZALC).
  • alphabetize jump instructions with no delay slot designed to back up large absolute addresses.
  • instructions to load 16-bit immediates at fleck position sixteen, 32 or 48, allowing to easily generate large constants.
  • PC-relative load instructions, as well equally address generation with large (PC-relative) offsets.
  • bit-reversal and byte-alignment instructions (previously only bachelor with the DSP extension).
  • multiply and divide instructions redefined and so that they use a single register for their result).
  • instructions generating truth values now generate all zeroes or all ones instead of but clearing/setting the 0-flake,
  • instructions using a truth value now just interpret all-zeroes as false instead of just looking at the 0-bit.

Removed infrequently used instructions:

  • some provisional moves
  • co-operative probable instructions (deprecated in previous releases).
  • integer overflow trapping instructions with 16-chip immediate
  • integer accumulator instructions (together Howdy/LO registers, moved to the DSP Awarding-Specific Extension)
  • unaligned load instructions (LWL and LWR), (requiring that well-nigh ordinary loads and stores support misaligned access, possibly via trapping and with the improver of a new instruction (BALIGN))

Reorganized the pedagogy encoding, freeing space for future expansions.

microMIPS [edit]

The microMIPS32/64 architectures are supersets of the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures (respectively) designed to replace the MIPS16e ASE. A disadvantage of MIPS16e is that it requires a mode switch before any of its 16-bit instructions can be processed. microMIPS adds versions of the most-frequently used 32-bit instructions that are encoded equally 16-bit instructions. This allows programs to intermix sixteen- and 32-bit instructions without having to switch modes. microMIPS was introduced alongside of MIPS32/64 Release 3, and each subsequent release of MIPS32/64 has a corresponding microMIPS32/64 version. A processor may implement microMIPS32/64 or both microMIPS32/64 and its corresponding MIPS32/64 subset. Starting with MIPS32/64 Release 6, support for MIPS16e ended, and microMIPS is the only form of code compression in MIPS.

Application-specific extensions [edit]

The base MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures tin can be supplemented with a number of optional architectural extensions, which are collectively referred to as application-specific extensions (ASEs). These ASEs provide features that improve the efficiency and functioning of sure workloads, such as digital signal processing.

MIPS MCU
Enhancements for microcontroller applications. The MCU ASE (application-specific extension) has been developed to extend the interrupt controller support, reduce the interrupt latency and heighten the I/O peripheral command function typically required in microcontroller organization designs.
  • Carve up priority and vector generation
  • Supports upwards to 256 interrupts in EIC (External Interrupt Controller) way and 8 hardware interrupt pins
  • Provides sixteen-bit vector offset address
  • Pre-fetching of the interrupt exception vector
  • Automated Interrupt Prologue – adds hardware to save and update system condition before the interrupt treatment routine
  • Automated Interrupt Epilogue – restores the system country previously stored in the stack for returning from the interrupt.
  • Interrupt Chaining – supports the service of pending interrupts without the need to go out the initial interrupt routine, saving the cycles required to store and restore multiple active interrupts
  • Supports speculative pre-fetching of the interrupt vector accost. Reduces the number of interrupt service cycles by overlapping memory accesses with pipeline flushes and exception prioritization
  • Includes atomic fleck set/articulate instructions which enables bits inside an I/O register that are normally used to monitor or control external peripheral functions to exist modified without pause, ensuring the action is performed securely.
MIPS16
MIPS16 is an Application-Specific Extension for MIPS I through to V designed by LSI Logic and MIPS Technologies, appear on Oct 21, 1996, alongside its start implementation, the LSI Logic TinyRISC processor.[27] MIPS16 was later licensed by NEC Electronics, Philips Semiconductors, and Toshiba (amidst others); and implemented as an extension to the MIPS I, II, an III architectures. MIPS16 decreases the size of application past upward to 40% past using sixteen-scrap instructions instead of 32-bit instructions' and also improves ability efficiency, the education cache hit charge per unit, and is equivalent in performance to its base architecture.[28] It is supported by hardware and software development tools from MIPS Technologies and other providers. MIPS16e is an improved version of MIPS16 start supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 Release i. MIPS16e2 is an improved version of MIPS16 that is supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 (up to Release five). Release 6 replaced it with microMIPS.
MIPS Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
The DSP ASE is an optional extension to the MIPS32/MIPS64 Release two and newer teaching sets which can exist used to accelerate a large range of "media" computations—especially audio and video. The DSP module comprises a set up of instructions and state in the integer pipeline and requires minimal additional logic to implement in MIPS processor cores. Revision ii of the ASE was introduced in the second half of 2006. This revision adds actress instructions to the original ASE, but is otherwise backwards-compatible with it.[29] Unlike the bulk of the MIPS architecture, it'southward a adequately irregular set of operations, many chosen for a item relevance to some key algorithm. Its main novel features (vs original MIPS32):[thirty]
  • Saturating arithmetic (when a calculation overflows, deliver the representable number closest to the non-overflowed answer).
  • Fixed-indicate arithmetic on signed 32- and 16-chip stock-still-bespeak fractions with a range of -1 to +ane (these are widely called "Q31" and "Q15").
  • The existing integer multiplication and multiply-accumulate instructions, which evangelize results into a double-size accumulator (called "how-do-you-do/lo" and 64 bits on MIPS32 CPUs). The DSP ASE adds three more accumulators, and some unlike flavours of multiply-accumulate.
  • SIMD instructions operating on 4 x unsigned bytes or 2 10 sixteen-chip values packed into a 32-bit register (the 64-chip variant of the DSP ASE supports larger vectors, also).
  • SIMD operations are basic arithmetic, shifts and some multiply-accumulate blazon operations.
MIPS SIMD architecture (MSA)
Teaching ready extensions designed to accelerate multimedia.
  • 32 vector registers of xvi x 8-bit, 8 x 16-bit, 4 10 32-bit, and 2 10 64 scrap vector elements
  • Efficient vector parallel arithmetics operations on integer, fixed-point and floating-signal data
  • Operations on absolute value operands
  • Rounding and saturation options bachelor
  • Total precision multiply and multiply-add
  • Conversions between integer, floating-betoken, and fixed-point data
  • Complete set of vector-level compare and branch instructions with no status flag
  • Vector (1D) and array (2d) shuffle operations
  • Typed load and shop instructions for endian-independent operation
  • IEEE Standard for Floating-Bespeak Arithmetic 754-2008 compliant
  • Chemical element precise floating-betoken exception signaling
  • Pre-defined scalable extensions for fries with more gates/transistors
  • Accelerates compute-intensive applications in conjunction with leveraging generic compiler support
  • Software-programmable solution for consumer electronics applications or functions not covered past defended hardware
  • Emerging data mining, feature extraction, prototype and video processing, and human-computer interaction applications
  • Loftier-performance scientific calculating
MIPS virtualization
Hardware supported virtualization engineering science.
MIPS multi-threading
Each multi-threaded MIPS core can back up upwardly to two VPEs (Virtual Processing Elements) which share a single pipeline likewise every bit other hardware resource. Even so, since each VPE includes a consummate copy of the processor state as seen by the software arrangement, each VPE appears as a complete standalone processor to an SMP Linux operating system. For more than fine-grained thread processing applications, each VPE is capable of supporting up to nine TCs allocated beyond two VPEs. The TCs share a common execution unit merely each has its own plan counter and core register files so that each can handle a thread from the software. The MIPS MT architecture too allows the allocation of processor cycles to threads, and sets the relative thread priorities with an optional Quality of Service (QoS) manager block. This enables two prioritization mechanisms that decide the flow of information across the bus. The starting time mechanism allows the user to prioritize one thread over some other. The second machinery is used to allocate a specified ratio of the cycles to specific threads over fourth dimension. The combined use of both mechanisms allows effective allocation of bandwidth to the set of threads, and better control of latencies. In real-fourth dimension systems, system-level determinism is very disquisitional, and the QoS block facilitates improvement of the predictability of a system. Hardware designers of advanced systems may replace the standard QoS block provided by MIPS Technologies with one that is specifically tuned for their awarding.
SmartMIPS
SmartMIPS is an Application-Specific Extension (ASE) designed by Gemplus International and MIPS Technologies to improve functioning and reduce memory consumption for smart card software. It is supported past MIPS32 only, since smart cards exercise not require the capabilities of MIPS64 processors. Few smart cards use SmartMIPS.
MIPS Digital Media eXtension (MDMX)
Multimedia awarding accelerations that were mutual in the 1990s on RISC and CISC systems.
MIPS-3D
Additional instructions for improving the performance of 3D graphics applications

Calling conventions [edit]

MIPS has had several calling conventions, especially on the 32-flake platform.

The O32 ABI is the nigh commonly-used ABI, owing to its status every bit the original System V ABI for MIPS.[31] [32] It is strictly stack-based, with only four registers $a0-$a3 available to pass arguments. Infinite on the stack is reserved in case the callee needs to save its arguments, but the registers are non stored there by the caller. The return value is stored in annals $v0; a second return value may be stored in $v1. The ABI took shape in 1990 and was concluding updated in 1994. This perceived slowness, along with an antique floating-point model with merely 16 registers, has encouraged the proliferation of many other calling conventions. It is only defined for 32-scrap MIPS, but GCC has created a 64-scrap variation chosen O64.[33]

For 64-scrap, the N64 ABI by Silicon Graphics is most normally used. The most important improvement is that 8 registers are now available for argument passing; it as well increases the number of floating-signal registers to 32. There is also an ILP32 version called N32, which uses 32-bit pointers for smaller code, analogous to the x32 ABI. Both run under the 64-scrap style of the CPU.[33] The N32 and N64 ABIs pass the first eight arguments to a office in the registers $a0-$a7; subsequent arguments are passed on the stack. The return value (or a pointer to information technology) is stored in the registers $v0; a 2d return value may be stored in $v1. In both the N32 and N64 ABIs all registers are considered to be 64-bits broad.

A few attempts have been made to supplant O32 with a 32-chip ABI that resembles N32 more. A 1995 conference came up with MIPS EABI, for which the 32-bit version was quite similar.[34] EABI inspired MIPS Technologies to propose a more than radical "NUBI" ABI additionally reuse argument registers for the return value.[35] MIPS EABI is supported by GCC but non LLVM, and neither supports NUBI.

For all of O32 and N32/N64, the return address is stored in a $ra register. This is automatically prepare with the use of the JAL (leap and link) or JALR (jump and link annals) instructions. The office prologue of a (non-leaf) MIPS subroutine pushes the return address (in $ra) to the stack.[36] [37]

On both O32 and N32/N64 the stack grows downwards, merely the N32/N64 ABIs require 64-chip alignment for all stack entries. The frame pointer ($xxx) is optional and in practice rarely used except when the stack allocation in a function is determined at runtime, for instance, by calling alloca().

For N32 and N64, the return address is typically stored 8 bytes before the stack arrow although this may be optional.

For the N32 and N64 ABIs, a function must preserve the $s0-$s7 registers, the global pointer ($gp or $28), the stack arrow ($sp or $29) and the frame arrow ($xxx). The O32 ABI is the same except the calling office is required to save the $gp register instead of the chosen role.

For multi-threaded lawmaking, the thread local storage pointer is typically stored in special hardware register $29 and is accessed by using the mfhw (movement from hardware) pedagogy. At to the lowest degree one vendor is known to store this data in the $k0 register which is normally reserved for kernel use, but this is not standard.

The $k0 and $k1 registers ($26–$27) are reserved for kernel use and should non be used by applications since these registers can be changed at whatsoever time by the kernel due to interrupts, context switches or other events.

Registers for O32 calling convention
Name Number Use Callee must preserve?
$zero $0 constant 0 N/A
$at $1 assembler temporary No
$v0–$v1 $2–$iii values for part returns and expression evaluation No
$a0–$a3 $4–$vii office arguments No
$t0–$t7 $8–$15 temporaries No
$s0–$s7 $16–$23 saved temporaries Yes
$t8–$t9 $24–$25 temporaries No
$k0–$k1 $26–$27 reserved for OS kernel N/A
$gp $28 global pointer Yep (except PIC code)
$sp $29 stack pointer Yes
$fp $30 frame pointer Yeah
$ra $31 return address North/A
Registers for N32 and N64 calling conventions[38]
Proper name Number Employ Callee must preserve?
$zero $0 constant 0 N/A
$at $1 assembler temporary No
$v0–$v1 $2–$iii values for part returns and expression evaluation No
$a0–$a7 $four–$11 function arguments No
$t4–$t7 $12–$15 temporaries No
$s0–$s7 $16–$23 saved temporaries Yes
$t8–$t9 $24–$25 temporaries No
$k0–$k1 $26–$27 reserved for Bone kernel N/A
$gp $28 global pointer Yeah
$sp $29 stack pointer Yeah
$s8 $30 frame pointer Yep
$ra $31 return address N/A

Registers that are preserved across a call are registers that (by convention) volition not be changed by a organization call or procedure (function) telephone call. For example, $s-registers must be saved to the stack by a procedure that needs to use them, and $sp and $fp are always incremented past constants, and decremented dorsum after the procedure is washed with them (and the memory they point to). By contrast, $ra is inverse automatically by whatsoever normal part call (ones that use jal), and $t-registers must exist saved by the program earlier any process call (if the program needs the values inside them afterwards the phone call).

The userspace calling convention of position-independent lawmaking on Linux additionally requires that when a function is called the $t9 register must contain the address of that function.[39] This convention dates dorsum to the Organisation V ABI supplement for MIPS.[xl]

Uses [edit]

MIPS processors are used in embedded systems such as residential gateways and routers. Originally, MIPS was designed for general-purpose computing. During the 1980s and 1990s, MIPS processors for personal, workstation, and server computers were used by many companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation, MIPS Computer Systems, NEC, Pyramid Technology, SiCortex, Siemens Nixdorf, Silicon Graphics, and Tandem Computers.

Historically, video game consoles such every bit the Nintendo 64, Sony PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and PlayStation Portable used MIPS processors. MIPS processors also used to exist popular in supercomputers during the 1990s, but all such systems have dropped off the TOP500 list. These uses were complemented past embedded applications at commencement, just during the 1990s, MIPS became a major presence in the embedded processor market, and by the 2000s, most MIPS processors were for these applications.

In the mid- to late-1990s, it was estimated that ane in three RISC microprocessors produced was a MIPS processor.[41]

By the late 2010s, MIPS machines were notwithstanding commonly used in embedded markets, including automotive, wireless router, LTE modems (mainly via MediaTek), and microcontrollers (for example the Microchip Technology PIC32M). They accept mostly faded out of the personal, server, and application space.

Simulators [edit]

Open Virtual Platforms (OVP)[42] includes the freely available for non-commercial use simulator OVPsim, a library of models of processors, peripherals and platforms, and APIs which enable users to develop their ain models. The models in the library are open source, written in C, and include the MIPS 4K, 24K, 34K, 74K, 1004K, 1074K, M14K, microAptiv, interAptiv, proAptiv 32-bit cores and the MIPS 64-bit 5K range of cores. These models are created and maintained by Imperas[43] and in partnership with MIPS Technologies have been tested and assigned the MIPS-Verified mark. Sample MIPS-based platforms include both bare metal environments and platforms for booting unmodified Linux binary images. These platforms–emulators are available as source or binaries and are fast, free for not-commercial usage, and are like shooting fish in a barrel to use. OVPsim is adult and maintained by Imperas and is very fast (hundreds of million of instructions per second), and congenital to handle multicore homogeneous and heterogeneous architectures and systems.

There is a freely bachelor MIPS32 simulator (earlier versions imitation only the R2000/R3000) called SPIM for utilise in teaching. EduMIPS64[44] is a GPL graphical cantankerous-platform MIPS64 CPU simulator, written in Java/Swing. It supports a wide subset of the MIPS64 ISA and allows the user to graphically see what happens in the pipeline when an assembly plan is run by the CPU.

MARS[45] is another GUI-based MIPS emulator designed for use in pedagogy, specifically for utilize with Hennessy'southward Computer Arrangement and Design.

WebMIPS[46] is a browser-based MIPS simulator with visual representation of a generic, pipelined processor. This simulator is quite useful for register tracking during step by step execution.

QtMips[47] [48] [49] provides simple 5-stages pipeline visualization every bit well equally enshroud principle visualization for basic computer architectures courses. Windows, Linux, macOS and online version is available.

More than advanced gratuitous emulators are available from the GXemul (formerly known as the mips64emul project) and QEMU projects. These emulate the various MIPS Three and Four microprocessors in addition to entire estimator systems which employ them.

Commercial simulators are available peculiarly for the embedded use of MIPS processors, for case Air current River Simics (MIPS 4Kc and 5Kc, PMC RM9000, QED RM7000, Broadcom/Netlogic ec4400, Cavium Octeon I), Imperas (all MIPS32 and MIPS64 cores), VaST Systems (R3000, R4000), and CoWare (the MIPS4KE, MIPS24K, MIPS25Kf and MIPS34K).

The Creator simulator[50] [51] [52]is portable and allows the user to learn various assembly languages of different processors (Creator has examples with an implementation of MIPS32 and RISC-Five instructions).

WepSIM[53] is a browser-based simulator where a subset of MIPS instructions are micro-programmed. This simulator is very useful in order to learn how a CPU works (microprogramming, MIPS routines, traps, interruptions, organisation calls, etc.).

Meet also [edit]

  • DLX
  • List of MIPS architecture processors
  • MIPS architecture processors
  • Pipeline (calculating)
  • Prpl Foundation

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Farquhar, Erin; Philip Bunce (1994). MIPS Developer's Handbook. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBNane-55860-297-six.
  • Patterson, David A; John L. Hennessy (2004). Reckoner Arrangement and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface . Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN1-55860-604-1.
  • Sweetman, Dominic (1999). See MIPS Run. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN1-55860-410-3.
  • Sweetman, Dominic (2007). See MIPS Run, 2nd edition. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN978-0-12-088421-half-dozen.

External links [edit]

  • MIPS Processors
  • MIPS Compages history diagram at the Wayback Machine (archived 2013-05-xxx)
  • Online MIPS emulator
  • MIPS Instructions - MIPS Teaching Set

Which Two 32-bit Registers Are Known As Extended Index Registers,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture

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